Abstract

Physical exercise is widely believed to enhance cognition, yet evidence from meta-analyses remains mixed. Here we compile a study-level dataset of 2,239 effect-size estimates from 215 meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials examining the effect of exercise on general cognition, memory, and executive functions. We find strong evidence of selective reporting and large between-study heterogeneity. Analyses adjusted for publication bias reveal average effects much smaller than commonly reported (general cognition: standardized mean difference, SMD = 0.227, 95% credible interval 0.116 to 0.330; memory: SMD = 0.027, 95% credible interval 0.000 to 0.227; executive functions: SMD = 0.012, 95% credible interval 0.000 to 0.147), along with wide prediction intervals spanning both negative and positive effects. Subgroup analyses identify specific population-intervention combinations with more consistent benefits. Overall, broad claims of generalized cognitive enhancement resulting from physical exercise appear premature; the evidence supports targeted, population- and intervention-specific recommendations.

Heterogeneity in the effects of exercise
Fig: Heterogeneity in the effects of exercise

Reference: František Bartoš, Martina Lušková, Kseniya Bortnikova, Karolína Hozová, Klara Kantova, Zuzana Irsova, Tomas Havranek (2025), "Effect of Exercise on Cognition, Memory, and Executive Function: A Study-Level Meta-Meta-Analysis Across Populations and Exercise Categories," available at osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/qr8e2_v1.

More meta from Prague

Headline result

Effect of physical exercise on cognition: corrected for publication bias, SMD 0.227 for general cognition, 0.027 for memory and 0.012 for executive function (wide prediction intervals spanning negative and positive effects), based on 2,239 effect-size estimates from 215 meta-analyses (Bartoš et al. 2025).

How to cite

František Bartoš, Martina Lušková, Kseniya Bortnikova, Karolína Hozová, Klara Kantova, Zuzana Irsova, Tomas Havranek (2025), "Effect of Exercise on Cognition, Memory, and Executive Function: A Study-Level Meta-Meta-Analysis Across Populations and Exercise Categories," available at osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/qr8e2_v1.

BibTeX 
@misc{bartoš2025exercise,
  author  = {František Bartoš and Martina Lušková and Kseniya Bortnikova and Karolína Hozová and Klara Kantova and Zuzana Irsova and Tomas Havranek},
  title   = {Effect of Exercise on Cognition, Memory, and Executive Function: A Study-Level Meta-Meta-Analysis Across Populations and Exercise Categories},
  year    = {2025},
  doi     = {10.31234/osf.io/qr8e2_v1},
}